Kinship Terms, Ethnonyms, Social Roles › Pronouns

STEDT #2530

ŋa-y ⪤ ka

I / ME / 1st p. PRONOUN / SELF

Proto-Tibeto-Burman

Reconstruction analysis

handleŋayinitialŋrhymeaycoverM · W

Intermediate reconstructions

Tani*ŋoː ‘I’JS-HCST: 117

Kuki-Chin*kay ⪤ *kay-maʔ ‘I / ME / MY’PKC #295

Central Naga (Ao Group)*aj ‘I, ME (1SG)’PCN #040

Northern Naga/Konyakian*ŋaᴬ ‘I’WTF-PNN: 506

Connections

HPTB*ŋa-y ‘1st person pronoun / self’pp. 1, 38, 162, 165, 167, 173, 174, 208, 231, 487

Notes

The variant of this root with final palatal semivowel is attested in Jingpho, Central Naga, and Qiangic languages. The variant with velar stop is found in Kuki-Chin, Kiranti, and Qiangic. Bodo-Garo has a metathesized form aŋ, which has probably arisen from syncope of a form with an *a- prefix, *a-ŋa, which actually exists synchronically in Garo.

Chinese comparandum

吾 OC *ngo, GSR #58f-i ‘I, we’; Coblin 86:96-7 ST *ngaɣ > OC *ngag; Schuessler 2007:518 *ŋâ; B & S 2011: *ŋˁa; Mand. wú.
我 OC *ngɑ̂, GSR #2a-g ‘I, we’; Coblin 86:96-7 ST *ngay > OC *ngarx; Schuessler 2007:518 *ŋâi; B & S 2011: *ŋˁaj; Mand. wǒ.

Reflexes & cognates457 reflexes · 55 subgroups

0Sino-Tibetan (previously published reconstructions)1

*Sino-Tibetanngaɣ/ngay ‘I’Coblin 86: 96

0.1Tibeto-Burman (previously published reconstructions)8

*Tibeto-Burmankamorpheme ⪤ ŋa ‘I’LaPolla 87: 22

*Tibeto-Burmanŋa ‘I’Chou 72: 58f-i

*Tibeto-Burmanŋa ‘I’Benedict 72 STC: 406

*Tibeto-Burmanŋa-y ‘1st person pronoun / self’Matisoff 03 HPTB: 605

*Tibeto-Burmanŋay ‘I / self’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

*Tibeto-Burmanŋǎy ‘I / self’Matisoff 85 GSTC: 070

*Tibeto-Burmanŋay ‘I, self’Benedict 72 STC: 285

*Tibeto-Burmanŋɑ ‘I’Chou 72: 2a-g

Apataniŋo aprefix-toʔmorpheme ‘myself’Sun J 93 Tani

Apataniŋɯ-mimorpheme ‘me’Sun J 93 Tani

Bengniŋuː ‘I’Sun J 93 HCST

Bengniŋuː ‘I’Sun J 93 Tani

Bengniŋuː-ñi#2504 PTB *g/s-ni-s ‘TWO’PTani *pri-ñi ‘EIGHT’PKC *niʔ ⪤ *hniʔ ‘TWO’PCN *a-ni(t) ‘TWO’PTk *ni ‘TWO’PBG *ni ‘TWO’PNN *ʔ-ni ‘TWO’TGTM *ᴮniː ‘TWO’PLB *ʔ-nit ⪤ *ni² ‘TWO’PL *s-ni(k)²/ᴸ| ‘TWO’PKar *k-hnejᴬ ‘TWO’ ‘we two’Sun J 93 Tani

Bokarŋoː ‘I’Sun J 93 HCST

Bokarŋoː ‘I’Sun J 93 Tani

Bokarŋoː pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.24

Bokar Lhobaŋoː ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.51

Galo`ŋo◦kəmorpheme pro.‘my’GLDC 09 Galo

Galo`ŋo◦mmorpheme pro.‘me (obj.)’GLDC 09 Galo

Galo`ŋo◦pəmorpheme pro.‘to me’GLDC 09 Galo

Galoŋo pro.‘I’GLDC 09 Galo

Galoŋo ‘I’Das Gupta 63 Gal

Miri, Hillŋo ‘I’Simon 76 Miri

Miri, Hillŋo'◦mmorpheme ‘me’Simon 76 Miri

Miri, Hillŋo-kemorpheme ‘my’Simon 76 Miri

Miri, Hillŋo-pemorpheme ‘for me’Simon 76 Miri

Miri, Hillŋo◦k'morpheme ‘my’Simon 76 Miri

Miri, Hillŋo◦p'morpheme ‘for me’Simon 76 Miri

Nishingngo ‘1st sg.’Das Gupta 69 Daf

Nishingngu-lumorpheme ‘1st pl.’Das Gupta 69 Daf

Tagindabinmorpheme ŋa harmorpheme-tomorpheme ‘Dabin invited me’Das Gupta 83 Tag

Taginno#2489 PTB *na-ŋ ‘YOU / THOU / 2ND PERSON PRONOUN’PTani *noː ‘THOU’PKC *naŋ ‘YOU’PTk *naŋ ‘2ND PERSON’PNN *naŋ ‘THOU’PLB *naŋ¹ ‘2ND PERSON PRONOUN’ ŋa kamorpheme-ya#5577 PTB *lyaŋ ‘WAIT’PTani *rjaŋ ‘WAIT FOR’-rɤmorpheme-dimorpheme ‘Will you wait for me?’Das Gupta 83 Tag

Taginno#2489 PTB *na-ŋ ‘YOU / THOU / 2ND PERSON PRONOUN’PTani *noː ‘THOU’PKC *naŋ ‘YOU’PTk *naŋ ‘2ND PERSON’PNN *naŋ ‘THOU’PLB *naŋ¹ ‘2ND PERSON PRONOUN’ ŋa kamorpheme-ɟimorpheme-rimorpheme ‘Will you help me?’Das Gupta 83 Tag

Taginno#2489 PTB *na-ŋ ‘YOU / THOU / 2ND PERSON PRONOUN’PTani *noː ‘THOU’PKC *naŋ ‘YOU’PTk *naŋ ‘2ND PERSON’PNN *naŋ ‘THOU’PLB *naŋ¹ ‘2ND PERSON PRONOUN’ ŋo hugubɤmorpheme mositmorpheme duŋmorpheme ‘Why do you touch me?’Das Gupta 83 Tag

Taginnomorpheme ŋo tɤnemamorpheme mɯriksutokamorpheme ‘answer to my question’Das Gupta 83 Tag

Taginŋo miŋmorpheme-dikmorpheme miŋmorpheme-kumorpheme-domorpheme ‘annoyed, I am’Das Gupta 83 Tag

Taginŋo◦mmorpheme dakmorpheme-rɯkmorpheme-tomorpheme (ka)morpheme v.‘turn to me’Das Gupta 83 Tag

1.1.1.2Eastern Tani7

Padam-Mishing [Abor-Miri]ŋo ‘I’Sun J 93 HCST

Damuŋoː ‘I’Sun J 93 Tani

Milangŋa ‘I’Tayeng 76 Mil

Milangŋa-aprefix-damorpheme-ŋumorpheme ‘myself’Tayeng 76 Mil

Milangŋa-kimorpheme-kimorpheme ‘from me’Tayeng 76 Mil

Milangŋak-kimorpheme ‘my’Tayeng 76 Mil

Milangŋak-kimorpheme legapimorpheme ‘for me’Tayeng 76 Mil

1.1.2Deng9

Darang [Taraon]hã dõmorpheme ‘from me’Anonymous xx Tar

Darang [Taraon]hã: ‘I’Anonymous xx Tar

Darang [Taraon]hã: thiya:morpheme ‘belongs to me’Anonymous xx Tar

Darang [Taraon]hã:◦pa:morpheme ‘I (only) / by myself’Anonymous xx Tar

Darang [Taraon]hã:◦pa:morpheme ‘I alone’Anonymous xx Tar

Darang [Taraon]xɑŋ³⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.22

Darang [Taraon]xɑŋ³⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.49

Iduŋɑ³⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.50

Yiduŋɑ³⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.25

1.2Kuki-Chin1

*Chinkay ⪤ kay-maʔ ‘I / ME / MY’VanBik 09 PKC: 295

1.2.1.1Northern Chin10

Paitekei-mah ‘I, me’VanBik 09 PKC: 295

Sizangke-ma ‘I’VanBik 09 PKC: 295

Thadokéi ‘I’Thirumalai 72: 55

Thadokêy ‘I, me, my’VanBik 09 PKC: 295

Tiddimkei¹ ‘I’VanBik 09 PKC: 295

Tiddimkei¹ ‘I’Bhaskararao 96 CDB: 578

Tiddimkei¹ ma?²morpheme ‘I’Bhaskararao 96 CDB: 579

Tiddimˉkă/ˍkă ppf‘I / my; we / our (exclusive)’Henderson 65 TidC

Tiddimˊkei n‘I’Henderson 65 TidC

Tiddimˊkei◦ˍmaʔmorpheme n‘I’Henderson 65 TidC

1.2.1.2Southern Plains Chin12

Ashočɛ̀i ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Chinbonk̯ei ‘I’So-Hartmann 88 Chin: 167

Chinbontšei ‘I’So-Hartmann 88 Chin: 167

Cho (Mindat)kei ‘I’VanBik 09 PKC: 295

Daaik̯éⁱ ‘I’So-Hartmann 88 Chin: 167

Khumikaay (pron) ‘I (1s)’VanBik 09 PKC: 295

Khumikai ‘I’So-Hartmann 88 Chin: 167

Matukaⁱ ‘I’So-Hartmann 88 Chin: 167

Mkaangkéⁱ ‘I’So-Hartmann 88 Chin: 167

Ngmüünk̯éi ‘I’So-Hartmann 88 Chin: 167

Nyhmoyecéⁱ ‘I’So-Hartmann 88 Chin: 167

Wakungkɛ ‘I’So-Hartmann 88 Chin: 167

1.2.2Central Chin9

Lai (Hakha)kày (maʔ) ‘first person singular pronoun’VanBik 09 PKC: 295

Lai (Falam)káy màʔ ‘I, me’VanBik 09 PKC: 295

Lushai [Mizo]ka ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Lushai [Mizo]ka ‘I’LaPolla 87: 22

Lushai [Mizo]kěi ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Lushai [Mizo]kěi ‘I, I myself’VanBik 09 PKC: 295

Lushai [Mizo]kei ‘I’Bhaskararao 96 CDB: 578

Lushai [Mizo]kei-mamorpheme ‘I’Bhaskararao 96 CDB: 579

Lushai [Mizo]ŋei ‘self’Benedict 72 STC: 285

1.2.3Maraic1

Lakher [Mara]kéi mā ‘I’VanBik 09 PKC: 295

1.2.4“Old Kuki”1

Kom Remkèi ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

1.3“Naga” Areal Group1

Maringkai ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

1.3.1Central Naga (Ao Group)15

*Central Nagaaj ‘I, ME (1SG)’Bruhn 14 PCN: III.040

*Aoni ‘I, ME (1SG)’Bruhn 14 PCN: II.242

Ao (Chungli)ni¹ pro.‘1sg (I/me)’Bruhn 14 PCN: II.242

Lotha Nagaa³ pro.‘I, me (1sg)’Bruhn 14 PCN: III.040

Lotha Nagaa ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Lotha Nagaa ‘me’Murry 78: 72

Lotha Nagaai ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Lotha Nagaā◦n̯ā#6484 PTB *na ‘AGENTIVE / INSTRUMENTAL’ ‘I’Acharya 75

Lotha Nagaā◦tsà#7596 PCN *tsaj ‘CALL’ ‘call me’Acharya 75

Lotha Naga²a(-¹na#6484 PTB *na ‘AGENTIVE / INSTRUMENTAL’) ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Sangtami ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Sangtam²i ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Yacham-Tengsangai ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Yimchungrüi ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Yimchungrü²i [²] ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

1.7.1Bodo-Garo1

*Bodo-Garoaŋ ‘I’Burling 59 PBo: 442

1.7.1.1Bodo4

Bodoaŋ ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Bodoaŋ ‘I’Bhat 68 Boro

Dimasaang ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Kokborokaŋ ‘I’Tripuri 88

1.7.1.2Garo4

Garoaŋ ‘I’LaPolla 87: 22

Garoaŋ ‘I’Benedict 72 STC: 406

Garoaŋ-amorpheme ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Garo (Bangladesh)ang-amorpheme pro‘I’Burling 03 Garo: 1.62-II:idx

1.7.1.3Koch1

Atongang ppron‘I, me, first person singular’van Breugel 08 Atong

1.7.1.4Deori1

Deori/Deuriã ‘I’Jacquesson 05 Deuri

1.7.2Northern Naga/Konyakian1

*Northern Nagaŋaᴬ ‘I’French 83: 506

1.7.2.1Tangsa-Nocte5

Noctenga ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Nocte²ŋa- ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Tangsa¹ŋa(ʔ) ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Tangsa (Moshang)nga ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Tangsa (Yogli)nga ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

1.7.2.2Konyak-Chang8

Changngo ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Changŋài ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Changŋò ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Khiamngan¹²ŋɤ-²³ɤʔmorpheme ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Konyak (Tamlu)gɔ ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Phomngei ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Phomŋʌy³³ ‘I’Burling 98 Phom

Wanchoku ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

1.7.3.1Jingpho8

Jingphongai ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Jingpho²ŋai ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Jingphoŋāi ‘I’Matisoff 85 GSTC: 070

Jingphoŋāi ‘I / me’Matisoff 74 TJLB: 107

Jingphoŋai ‘I, we’Benedict 72 STC: 285

Jingphoŋai³³ ‘I’Liu 84

Jingphoŋai³³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.19

Jingphoŋai³³ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.47

1.7.3.2Asakian1

Sakŋa ‘I / me’Huziwara 08 Sak: 413

2.1.1Western Himalayish2

Baramŋa ‘I’Kansakar 10 Baram: 202

Kanauriaṅ◦kōʻmorpheme adv‘in my direction / towards me’Bailey 11

2.1.2Bodic4

Kaikengā ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

Tshona (Wenlang)ŋe³⁵ ‘I’Lu 86 CuoM

Tshona (Mama)ŋe¹³ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.6

Cuona Menbaŋe³⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.06

2.1.2.1Tibetan22

Tibetan (Alike)ŋæ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.05

Tibetan (Amdo:Bla-brang)ŋa ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.4

Tibetan (Amdo:Zeku)ŋa ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.5

Tibetan (Amdo:Zeku)ŋæ ‘I’Sun J 85 Amdo: 381

Tibetan (Balti)ŋa· ‘I’Rangan 75: 77

Tibetan (Batang)ŋa²³¹ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.03

Tibetan (Jirel)'ngā ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

Tibetan (Khams:Dege)ŋa¹³ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.3

Tibetan (Lhasa)ŋa¹³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.02

Tibetan (Lhasa)ŋa¹³ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.2

Tibetan (Sherpa)nga ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

Tibetan (Spiti)ŋá ‘I’Sharma, S.R. 79 Sp

Tibetan (Spiti)ŋo ‘I’Sharma, S.R. 79 Sp

Tibetan (Written)ṅa ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Tibetan (Written)nga ‘I’Sun J 85 TbGl: 381

Tibetan (Written)ŋa ‘I’LaPolla 87: 22

Tibetan (Written)ŋa ‘I’Benedict 72 STC: 406

Tibetan (Written)ŋa pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.01

Tibetan (Written)ŋa ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.1

Tibetan (Written)ŋed ‘I, we (elegant)’Matisoff 85 GSTC: 070

Tibetan (Written)ŋed ‘I’Benedict 72 STC: 285

Tibetan (Xiahe)ŋa pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.04

2.1.3Lepcha1

Lepchago pron.‘I’Plaisier 07 Lepcha

2.1.4Tamangish24

*TGTMᴬʰŋa ‘I, me’Mazaudon 94 These: 216

Gurungngā ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

Gurungngā: ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

Gurungngāq ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

Gurung²ŋa ‘I, me’Mazaudon 94 These: 217

Gurung¹ŋa ‘I, me’Mazaudon 94 These: 220

Gurung¹ŋaː ‘I, me’Mazaudon 94 These: 220

Gurung (Ghachok)ŋa ‘I’Glover 72 GuVo: 1.1

Gurung (Ghachok)ŋaq ‘I’Glover 72 GuVo: 1.1

Gurung (Ghachok)ŋaː ‘I’Glover 72 GuVo: 1.1

Manang (Gyaru)ŋa² ‘I’Nagano 84 Man: 413

Manang (Prakaa)³ŋə ‘I’Hoshi 84: 0227

Manang (Prakaa)¹ŋɤ ‘I, me’Mazaudon 94 These: 216

Tamang (Risiangku)¹ŋa ‘I, me’Mazaudon 94 These: 216

Tamang (Sahu)ngā ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

Tamang (Sahu)¹ŋa ‘I, me’Mazaudon 94 These: 216

Tamang (Sahu)ŋa ‘I’Taylor 72 TmVo: 1.1

Tamang (Sahu)ŋa adj.‘I’Taylor 72 TmVo: 12.E.10

Tamang (Taglung)¹ŋa ‘I, me’Mazaudon 94 These: 218

Thakalinga ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

Thakali (Marpha)⁵⁴ŋʌ ‘I, me’Mazaudon 94 These: 220

Thakali (Syang)⁵⁵ŋa ‘I, me’Mazaudon 94 These: 218

Thakali (Tukche)ŋɔ ‘I’Hari 71a ThVo: 1.1

Thakali (Tukche)ᴴŋə ‘I, me’Mazaudon 94 These: 220

2.1.5Dhimal1

Dhimalka ‘I’LaPolla 87: 22

2.3Kiranti2

*Kiranti-ŋa ‘(first person singular marker)’Opgenort 11 Tilung

Walingaŋ-ka ‘I’Benedict 72 STC: 406

2.3.1Eastern Kiranti7

Athpare (Rai)ã ‘I’Ebert 97 Athpare

Athpare (Rai)aŋa ‘I; my’Ebert 97 Athpare

Limbuaprefix◦ŋgaʔ ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Limbuiprefix◦ŋga ‘I’Michailovsky 89 Lm

Limbuiprefix◦ŋgaʔ ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Limbuŋgaʔ ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Limbuəprefix◦ŋa ‘I’Benedict 72 STC: 406

2.3.2Southern Kiranti1

Rodongka-ŋa ‘I’Benedict 72 STC: 406

2.3.3Central Kiranti3

Dumiaŋ ‘I, me.’Driem 93 Dumi

Khaling'ung ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

Raiaŋ ‘I’Benedict 72 STC: 406

2.3.4Western Kiranti3

Hayuaŋ pron po‘my, me’Michailovsky 89 H2

Sunwargo ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

Thulunggo ‘I’Allen 75

2.4Kham-Magar-Chepang6

Chepangnga ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

Chepangŋa pn.‘I’Caughley 00 Chepang

Chepangŋa ‘I’Caughley 72 CVoc: 1.1

Chepangŋa.laŋmorpheme pn.‘I (ch.)’Caughley 00 Chepang

Kham'ngā: ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

Magarngā ‘I’Hale 73 CSD: 01.001

3.1Tangut2

Tangut [Xixia]ŋa ‘I, we [pronoun]’Li 97 Tangut: 2098

Tangut [Xixia]ŋə ‘I’Li 97 Tangut: 1247

3.2Qiangic21

Guiqiongŋø³⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.17

Guiqiongŋə³⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.16

Muyaŋɐ²⁴ v.‘be (1st person)’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 1628.15

Muyaŋə⁵³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.15

Muya [Minyak]ŋɯ⁵⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.15

Namuyiŋa⁵⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.19

Namuyiŋa⁵⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.46

Qiang (Longxi)qà ‘I, me’Evans 99 Qiang: 1359

Qiang (Mawo)ka ‘I’LaPolla 87: 22

Qiang (Mawo)qɑ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.08

Qiang (Mawo)qɑ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.8

Qiang (Mianchi)ŋà ‘I (nominative)’Evans 99 Qiang: 1359

Qiang (Mianchi)ŋà-lèmorpheme-(nə̀#2504 PTB *g/s-ni-s ‘TWO’PTani *pri-ñi ‘EIGHT’PKC *niʔ ⪤ *hniʔ ‘TWO’PCN *a-ni(t) ‘TWO’PTk *ni ‘TWO’PBG *ni ‘TWO’PNN *ʔ-ni ‘TWO’TGTM *ᴮniː ‘TWO’PLB *ʔ-nit ⪤ *ni² ‘TWO’PL *s-ni(k)²/ᴸ| ‘TWO’PKar *k-hnejᴬ ‘TWO’-qómorpheme) ‘we two [I-he-two-CL]’Evans 99 Qiang: 1360

Qiang (Taoping)ŋɑ⁵⁵; qɑ⁵⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.9

Queyu (Yajiang) [Zhaba]ŋa³⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.16

Queyu (Xinlong)ŋa¹³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.13

Queyu (Xinlong)ŋɯ¹³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.13

Xumiŋa⁵⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.17

Xumiŋɐ⁵⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.20

Xumiŋɛ³⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.17

Zhaba (Daofu County)ŋa¹³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.14

3.3rGyalrongic5

Daofuŋa pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.12

Ergong (Danba)ŋɛ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.14

Nyagrong Minyag (Ganzi Xinlong)ˊŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

Lavrung (Jinchuan Guaninqiao)ŋâ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

Lavrung (Maerkang Muerzong)ŋə ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

3.3.1rGyalrong74

Ganzi Danba Geshenzhaŋəʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Heishui Luhua)'ŋaʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Aba Kehe Shuiricun)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Aba Rongan Menggucun)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Ganzi Danba Bawang)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Ganzi Danba Niega Jiaju)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Ganzi Daofu Jiasikong kharjiacun)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Ganzi Daofu Kongse Xiaoguoqiaocun)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Ganzi Daofu Xianshuizhen)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Heishui Shashiduo Muchang)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Lixian Ganbao)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Lixian Guergou)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Baiwan Muerji)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Dazang)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Japhug Shaerzong (A))ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Soman)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Zhuokeji Xisuo)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Rangtang Puxi siyaowucun)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Rangtang Zongke)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Lixian Xuecheng Jiamizhai)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrongŋa ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.12

rGyalrong (Maerkang Bola (B))ŋa22 ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Bola (A))ŋa44 ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Bola (C))ŋa44 ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Lixian Xiameng Xiaogoucun)ŋa¹ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Heishui Shashiduo)ŋaʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Hongyuan Rangkou Jiadang)ŋaʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Hongyuan Shuajinsi Selong)ŋaʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Benzhen Yingbolo)ŋaʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Jiamuzu Konglong)ŋaʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Soman Seermi)ŋaʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Ganzi Danba Dandong)ŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Ganzi Danba Taipingqiao)ŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Jinchuan Guaninqiao Wobzi)ŋô ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Jinchuan Jimu Zhouchan)ŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Jinchuan Maerbang)ŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Jinchuan Maori Maori)ŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Jinchuan Taiyanghe)ŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Lixian Putou)ŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Lixian Xinglong Kechun)ŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Xiaojin Bajiao)ŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Xiaojin Fubian)ŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Xiaojin Mupo)ŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Xiaojin Zhailong)ŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Baoxing Qiaoqi Leilecun Duoguozu)ŋo44 ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Ganzi Danba Badi)ŋo53 ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Jinchuan Dusong)ŋo³ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Jinchuan Manai Genza)ŋo³ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Jinchuan Wanlin Xilizhai)ŋo³ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Baoxing Qiaoqi Yuojie)ŋoʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Jinchuan Sawajiao)ŋoʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Lixian Jiabi)ŋoʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Lixian Miyalo)ŋoʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Songgang Zhibo)ŋoʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Xiaojin Dawei)ŋoʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Xiaojin Hanniu)ŋoʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Xiaojin Xingge)ŋoʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Jinchuan Hedong)ŋoʔ³ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Jinchuan Erkai)ŋæʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang)ŋɑ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.11

rGyalrong (Lixian Shangmeng Rajipu)ŋɑ¹ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Ganzi Seda Geletuo Naoluocun)ŋə ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Ribu)ŋə ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Queyu Gala)ŋə ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Rangtang Puxicun)ŋə ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Rangtang Shili Erguowucun)ŋə ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Ganzi Danba Dasang)ŋəʔ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Xiaojin Rilong)ŋɡoʔ / joʔmorpheme ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Maerkang Kangshan)ʔəprefix◦'ŋə ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Ganzi Danba Badi Munashan)ˉŋoˀ ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrong (Ganzi Danba Badi Qiongshan)ˊŋo ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGyalrongnga ‘I’Nagano 97 GyQ: 42

rGyalrong (Ganzi Danba Bianer)ŋa ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

rGBenzhenŋaʔ ‘I’Sun J 97 rGB

4Nungic10

Anongŋa ‘I’LaPolla 87: 22

Anongŋa ‘I’Benedict 72 STC: 406

Rawangŋɑ³¹ ‘me (1st person pronoun)’LaPolla 03: 946

Nungŋɑ⁵⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.21

Anongŋɑ⁵⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.44

Dulongŋɑ⁵³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.20

Trung [Dulong]ŋɑ⁵³ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.46

Trung [Dulong] (Dulonghe)ŋa⁵³ ‘I’LaPolla 87: 22

Trung [Dulong] (Nujiang)gɯ⁵⁵ ‘I’Sun H 82 Dul

Trung [Dulong] (Nujiang)gɯ⁵⁵ ‘I’LaPolla 87: 22

5Tujia9

Tujia (Northern)nga2 pron.‘I, me’Brassett 04 Tujia

Tujia (Northern)nga2duo3morpheme pron.‘I myself’Brassett 04 Tujia

Tujia (Northern)ngo1 pron.‘I, me’Brassett 04 Tujia

Tujia (Northern)ngo2 pron.‘I, me’Brassett 04 Tujia

Tujia (Northern)wo1 pron.‘I, me’Brassett 04 Tujia

Tujia (Northern)ŋa³⁵ ‘I’Tian 86

Tujiaŋa³⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.49

Tujiaŋa³⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.38

Tujia (Southern)ŋo³³ ‘I’Tian 86

6.1Lolo-Burmese1

*Lolo-Burmeseŋa¹ ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

6.1.1Burmish36

Achang (Lianghe)ŋɑ⁵⁵ ‘I’Dai 85 AcJZ

Achang (Longchuan)ŋɔ⁵⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.28

Achang (Longchuan)ŋɔ⁵⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.41

Achang (Luxi)ŋa³¹ ‘I’Dai 85 AcJZ

Achang (Xiandao)ŋɔ⁵⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.29

Bola (Luxi)ŋa⁵⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.32

Burmese (Modern)ŋā³ ‘I’Luce 85: S.1

Burmese (Rangoon)ŋɑ²² pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.27

Burmese (Spoken)ŋa³ ‘I’Luce 85: S.1

Burmese (Spoken Rangoon)ŋɑ²² ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.40

Burmese (Written)ṅā: ‘I’Marrison 67 Naga

Burmese (Written)ŋa ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Burmese (Written)ŋā ‘I’Luce 85: S.1

Burmese (Written)ŋa ‘I’Hansson 89 AHKP: 11

Burmese (Written)ŋa ‘I’Matisoff 78 MLBM: 98

Burmese (Written)ŋa ‘I / me’Matisoff 74 TJLB: 107

Burmese (Written)ŋa ‘I ( cf. ŋa' )’Benedict 76 WBur

Burmese (Written)ŋa ‘I’LaPolla 87: 22

Burmese (Written)ŋa ‘I’Benedict 72 STC: 406

Burmese (Written)ŋaʼ ‘( obj. and poss. of ŋa = 'I' )’Benedict 76 WBur

Burmese (Written)ŋɑ² ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.39

Burmese (Written)ŋɑɑ² pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.26

Danuŋɑ⁴ ‘I’Luce 85: S.1

Hpun (Northern)ŋáʼ, ŋáh ‘I / my’Henderson 86 Hpun

Hpun (Metjo)ŋɑh ‘I’Luce 85: S.1

Langsu (Luxi)ŋɔ³¹ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.31

Lashi (Lachhe')ŋɔ⁴ ‘I’Luce 85: S.1

Leqi (Luxi)ŋo³¹ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.33

Marmaŋa ‘I / me’Huziwara 08 Sak: 413

Maru [Langsu]ŋò ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Maru [Langsu]ŋɔ³¹ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.43

Taung-Yoŋɑ⁴ ‘I’Luce 85: S.1

Atsi [Zaiwa]ŋô ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Atsi [Zaiwa]ŋo⁵¹ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.30

Atsi [Zaiwa]ŋo⁵¹ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.42

Atsi [Zaiwa]ŋɔ² ‘I’Luce 85: S.1

6.1.2Loloish4

*LoloishC-ŋa¹ ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

*LoloishC-ŋa¹ ‘I’Bradley 79 PLo: 438

*LoloishC-ŋa¹ ‘I’Hansson 89 AHKP: 11

PNLC-ŋa¹ ‘I’Chen 86 CS: 38.

6.1.2.1Northern Loloish25

Gazhuoŋa³³ ‘I’Dai 91 TB15

Gazhuoŋa³³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.47

Laloŋa⁵⁵ ‘I’Chen 86 CS: 38.

Liphoŋo³³ ‘I’Chen 86 CS: 38.

Nasuŋo²¹ ‘I’Chen 86 CS: 38.

Neisuŋo²¹ ‘I’Chen 86 CS: 38.

Nesuŋo²¹ ‘I’Chen 86 CS: 38.

Nosuŋa³³ ‘I’Chen 86 CS: 38.

Nusu (Central)ŋa³³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.34

Nusu (Northern)ŋa³¹ ‘I’Sun J 86 Nusu

Nusu (Bijiang)ŋɑ³⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.45

Nusu (Southern)ŋɔ⁵⁵ ‘I’Sun J 86 Nusu

Yi (Dafang)ŋo²¹ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.22

Yi (Liangshan)ŋa³³ ‘I; me’Ma 08 Yi: index

Yi (Liangshan)ŋa³⁴ ‘I; me’Ma 08 Yi: index

Yi (Liangshan)ŋa⁵⁵vi³³morpheme ‘mine (belonging to me)’Ma 08 Yi: index

Yi (Mile)ŋo³³ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.25

Yi (Mojiang)ŋo²¹ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.26

Yi (Nanhua)ŋo³³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.37

Yi (Nanhua)ŋo³³ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.24

Yi (Nanjian)ŋɑ⁵⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.23

Yi (Weishan)ŋɑ⁵⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.36

Yi (Wuding)ŋu¹¹ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.38

Yi (Xide)ŋa³³ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.21

Yi (Xide)ŋɑ³³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.35

6.1.2.2Central Loloish21

Ahiŋo² ‘I’Chen 86 CS: 38.

Jinuoŋɔ³¹ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.34

Jinuo (Youle)ŋɔ⁴² ‘I’Gai 86

Jinuo (Buyuan)ŋɔ⁴² ‘I / me’Gai 86

Jinuoŋɔ⁴² pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.44

Lahuŋǎ ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Lahu (Lancang)ŋɑ³¹ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.43

Lahu (Black)ŋà ‘I / me’Matisoff 74 TJLB: 107

Lahu (Black)ŋᴀ³¹ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.33

Lahu (Yellow)ŋa² ‘I’Chang 86

Lisu (Central)ngwa⁴ ‘I / me / my’Fraser 22

Lisu (Central)ngwa⁴-rgh⁵morpheme ‘mine (belonging to me)’Fraser 22

Lisu (Central)ngwa⁴-tá¹morpheme-ma³morpheme ‘mine (belonging to me)’Fraser 22

Lisu (Northern)ŋa³³ ɔ³³morpheme dʑɔ²¹morpheme Pf‘I hear; it is said’Bradley 94 Lisu

Lisu (Northern)ŋa⁴⁴ ɔ³³morpheme dʑɔ²¹morpheme ‘it is said; I have heard that’Bradley 94 Lisu

Lisuŋuɑ³³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.40

Lisuŋuɑ⁴⁴ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.27

Lisuŋwā ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Lisu (Northern)ŋwa⁴⁴ P‘I’Bradley 94 Lisu

Sani [Nyi]ŋa³³ ‘I’Chen 86 CS: 38.

Yi (Sani)ŋɒ³³ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.39

6.1.2.3Southern Loloish22

Akhaŋá ‘I’Weidert 87 TBTo: 197

Akhaŋá ‘i’Hansson 89 AHKP: 11

Akha (Thai)ŋá ‘I’Hansson 89 AHKP: 11

Akha (Yunnan)ŋá ‘I’Hansson 89 AHKP: 11

Bisuga ‘I’Bradley 9x Bisu

Hani (Lüchun)ŋá ‘I’Hansson 89 AHKP: 11

Hani (Dazhai)ŋa⁵⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.31

Hani (Lüchun)ŋa⁵⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.41

Hani (Pijo)ŋá ‘I’Hansson 89 AHKP: 11

Hani (Caiyuan)ŋa⁵⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.30

Hani (Gelanghe)ŋa⁵⁵ ‘I’Li Yongsui 86 Hani

Hani (Wordlist)ngal ‘I’Hansson 89 AHKP: 11

Haoniŋɔ⁵⁵ ‘I’Hansson 89 AHKP: 11

Hani (Shuikui)ŋɔ⁵⁵ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.32

Hani (Khatu)ŋuɔ́ ‘I’Hansson 89 AHKP: 11

Hani (Mojiang)ŋɔ⁵⁵ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.42

Mpiŋo⁶ ‘I’Hansson 89 AHKP: 11

Mpiŋo⁶ ‘I’Matisoff 78 MLBM: 98

Mpiŋo⁶ ‘I’Srinuan 76

Mpiŋɑ⁴ ‘my, me’Matisoff 78 MLBM: 98

Mpiŋɑ⁴ ‘my / me’Srinuan 76

Silaŋɔ55 ‘I’Kato 08 Lao: 295

6.1.2.4Southeastern Loloish1

Phu Khaŋa³¹ ‘I’Fried 00 PhuKha

6.2Naxi4

Laze (Xiangjiao)ŋɑ˧ ‘1st sg’Michaud 06 NaLaze: 4313

Naxiŋə²¹ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.45

Naxi (Lijiang)ŋə³¹ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.28

Naxi (Yongning)ȵɑ³³ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.29

8Bai5

Bai (Bijiang)ŋo⁴² ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.37

Bai (Dali)ngɔ 3/4 ‘I / me’Dell 81: 289

Bai (Dali)ŋo³¹ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.35

Bai (Jianchuan)ŋo²¹ pron‘I’Huang and Dai 92 TBL: 0928.48

Bai (Jianchuan)ŋo³¹ ‘I’Sun H 91 ZMYY: 969.36

9Sinitic5

Chinese (Hanzi)吾 ‘I, my’BaxterSagart 2011: 2942

Chinese (Hanzi)我 ‘we, I’BaxterSagart 2011: 2929

Chinese (Hanzi)我 ‘I, me’Nagano 2013 rGyDB: 2006

Chinese (GSR #)0002a ‘we, I’BaxterSagart 2011: 2929

Chinese (GSR #)0058f ‘I, my’BaxterSagart 2011: 2942

9.0.1Old Chinese10

Chinese (Old/Mid)ŋo ‘I’Chou 72: 58f-i

Chinese (Old/Mid)ŋɑ̂ ‘I’Chou 72: 2a-g

Chinese (Old)ngâ ‘I’Matisoff 85 GSTC: 070

Chinese (Old)nga ‘I’Baxter 92: 1369

Chinese (Old)nga ‘I’Baxter 92: 324

Chinese (Old)ngajʔ ‘I’Baxter 92: 635

Chinese (Old)ngo ‘I’Matisoff 85 GSTC: 070

Chinese (Old)ŋan {ŋa[n]} ‘I, we’BaxterSagart 2011: 3296

Chinese (Old)ŋˤa ‘I, my’BaxterSagart 2011: 2942

Chinese (Old)ŋˤajʔ ‘we, I’BaxterSagart 2011: 2929

9.0.3Modern Chinese4

Chinese (Mandarin)wǒ ‘I’Evans 91

Chinese (Mandarin)wǒ ‘we, I’BaxterSagart 2011: 2929

Chinese (Mandarin)wú ‘I, my’BaxterSagart 2011: 2942

Chinese (Mandarin)wuoo ‘I’Sun J 85 ChGl: 381

Cite this entry

STEDT etymon #2530, *ŋa-y ⪤ *ka ‘I / ME / 1st p. PRONOUN / SELF’.

Stable link: https://larc-iu.github.io/stedt/etymon/2530

Data: STEDT v1.0 (2017). Accessed: [date].

References: cf. STC#285, HPTB

BibTeX

@misc{stedt-2530,
  title  = {{*ŋa-y ⪤ *ka 'I / ME / 1st p. PRONOUN / SELF'}},
  author = {STEDT},
  year   = {2017},
  note   = {Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus (STEDT) v1.0, etymon #2530},
  url    = {https://larc-iu.github.io/stedt/etymon/2530}
}

*ŋa-y ⪤ *ka